Social theories
Theory of modern society.
- Mass society
Old hierarchies have been replaced by a society in which everyone is an isolated individual. But because social order is unavoidable, it is created by herding people into organizations and movements led despotically from above.
Source:
David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford, 1987) Mass society is a description associated with society in the modern, industrial era.
Descriptions of society as a "mass" took form in the 19th century, referring to the leveling tendencies in the period of the Industrial Revolution that undermined traditional and aristocratic values.
In the late 19th century, in the work of Émile Durkheim, the term was associated with society as a mass of undifferentiated, atomistic individuals.
Émile Durkheim (April 15, 1858 – November 15, 1917) was a French sociologist whose contributions were instrumental in the formation of sociology and anthropology. His work and editorship of the first journal of sociology (L'Année Sociologique) helped establish sociology within the academy as an accepted social science. During his lifetime, Durkheim gave many lectures, and published numerous sociological studies on subjects such as education, crime, religion, suicide, and many other aspects of society. He is considered as one of the founding fathers of Sociology.
In 1895 he published Rules of the Sociological Method.
- Conflict theory
Theory of politics as moderated antagonism.
Politics is best seen as competition or conflict over resources, power, or prestige.
The term covers a wide range of theories, amongst which, appropriately, there is no agreement, but of which Marxism is the most familiar.
Source:
Alan Bullock, Oliver Stallybrass, and Stephen Trombley, eds, The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, 2nd edn (London, 1988)
- Exclusion theory
Also referred to as social closure theory.
Groups maximize their own benefits by excluding non-members. At the same time they establish their identity as much by excluding non-members as by defining the characteristics of membership. Identity thus depends on the identification of 'outsiders' or 'enemies'.
Source:
Frank Parkin, Marxism and Class Theory: A Bourgeois Critique (London, 1979).
- Functionalism
Theory of relation of parts to social whole.
Society is a system of interrelated institutions and processes, which are to be understood in terms of the function they perform for the system as a whole. These functions are not necessarily intended, and may even be contrary to the expressed intentions of those concerned.
- Action theory
Action theory is a theory of social investigation.
The social investigator cannot and should not be indifferent to what he/she studies. People are always both subjects and objects of research, and thus investigation should involve principled stands on the problems studied, and principled intentions of changing them.
Source:
Maggie Humm, The Dictionary of Feminist Theory (Hemel Hempstead, 1989).
- Feminist theory and methodology
The application of feminist theory to methods and concepts of sociological investigation.
Feminist research practice requires a critical stance towards existing methodology in the social sciences. While an attention to the responsibilities, rights and particular knowledge of those studied, and a recognition of gendered power relationships in the conduct and process of research may not be unique to feminist methodology; they are an essential component of it.
All ways of knowing are political. The use of feminist methodology implies a commitment to the empowerment of women.
Source:
Helen Roberts, ed.. Doing Feminist Research, 2nd edn (London, 1990).
- grand theory
A class of theories rather than a particular one.
Grand theory is any theory which attempts an overall explanation of social life, history, or human experience. It is normally contrasted with empiricism, positivism, or the view that understanding is only possible by studying particular instances, societies, or phenomena.
Source:
Quentin Skinner, ed., The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences (Cambridge, 1985).
- Grounded theories
Attempt to relate empirical and theoretical social science.
Theories which seek to explain political or social phenomena must be 'grounded' in empirical observation, otherwise they are simple inventions.
also see: empiricism
Source:
Barney G Glaser, The Discovery of Grounded Theory (New York, 1967).
- human nature
Theory of human individual and social character.
There is a 'natural' human character as there is a natural shape to a particular plant or a natural form to a particular animal.
This human nature is prior to the particularities of any time or place.
Also see: dialectic, dialectical materialism
Source:
David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford, 1987).
- Law of the small number
Theory of the German social scientist Max Weber (1864-1920) regarding the influence of small groups in key positions.
'The ruling minority can quickly reach understanding among its members; it is thus able at any time quickly to initiate that rationally organized action which is necessary to preserve its position of power.'
A concise statement of practical elitism.
Source:
Max Weber, Economy and Society, Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich, eds, 2 vols (London, 1978).
- Marxism
Theories derived from the work of Karl Marx (1818-1883).
The influence of Marx and of Marxism may be judged from the fact that Marxism has been compared, in its enormous variety, to Christianity.
Starting points, though not conclusions, for Marxism are an understanding of history as moved by class struggle; of economic classes as the principal components of society; of politics as derived from clashes of economic interests of CAPITALISM as a system which denies fundamental human aspirations.
Source:
David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford, 1987).
- altruism (1850-1855)
Also called (William Donald) Hamilton's genetical theory of social behavior, altruism is any behavior of an animal that may be disadvantageous for the individual, but that benefits others of its species.
The theory was espoused (as the 'law of mutual aid') by Prince Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921), a Russian philosopher; but the term was coined by Auguste Comte (1798-1857), French philosopher and social reformer.
A bird that warns the flock of impending danger by calling out, thereby making itself obvious to the predator, is nonetheless increasing the likelihood that its own kin (and their shared gene pool) will survive. Prince Peter Kropotkin believed that both animal and human survival depended on mutual aid, and recorded many examples from the animal kingdom.
Compare with: survival of the fittest
- collectivism
Theory of social and political organization.
The major problems facing individuals are ones which they share in common with others. The solutions, correspondingly, are most effective when pursued in common or collectively.
The provision of welfare and the cultivation of the economy, in particular, are best conducted through collective rather than individual action. The highest and most general form of collective action is the state, and collectivism is frequently a synonym for the advocacy of governmental solutions to social problems.
Collectivism differs from communalism and is frequently contrasted with individualism.
Source:
A V Dicey, Law and Public Opinion in England during the Nineteenth Century, 2nd edn (London, 1914, reprinted London 1962).
- communications theory
Explanation of human society in terms of communication of meanings.
The existence of social relations and of human society depends on the creation of shared meanings and understandings. These in turn depend on the communication of such meanings amongst people, and in this process language plays a central role. There are many differing accounts of these processes.
Source:
Allan Bullock, Oliver Stallybrass, and Stephen Trombley, eds, The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, 2nd edn (London, 1988).
- piecemeal social engineering
Theory of proper method of social reform employed by Austrian philosopher Karl Popper (1902-1994).
Rather than engage in grand schemes, government should deal with problems as they emerge, and respond to social or economic deficiencies in an ad hoc manner.
Piecemeal social engineering was a concept favored by those attracted to the idea of an end of ideology.
Source:
Roger Scruton, A Dictionary of Political Thought (London, 1987)
- power
Theory of individuals' and groups' ability to achieve their ends.
In social relations, power is exercised by persons or institutions acting in such a way that their interests or wishes prevail over those of others. They are thus responsible for the consequences. There is dispute, however, over the extent to which they need to be aware of these consequences for it to be usefully said that power is being exercised.
Source:
David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford, 1987).
- biological determinism
Theory of human character.
Normally attributed to thinkers rather than claimed by them.
Human character is determined by physical, biological characteristics, which are inherited.
Racism and sexism both frequently employ the assumptions of biological determinism to divide people into groups which are alleged to differ in ability and inclination.
Source:
Maggie Humm, The Dictionary of Feminist Theory (Hemel Hempstead, 1989).
- public interest
Critical revision of the theory of interests.
More important than an attempt to identify individual or group interests is the identification of the public interest or common good which is shared by members of society as a whole.
Source:
David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford, 1987).
- racism
Theory of the biologically determined basis of human social character. The term 'racism' is used critically of those employing such theory, rather than as a term of self description.
Humans are divided into biologically distinct groups whose characteristics are passed on by inheritance. Differences in ability, taste, aptitude and culture are thus explained by race.
The theory of race, which developed in the 19th century, was widely discredited after its employment by the Nazi regime as justification for the mass murder of Jews, gypsies, and others deemed inferior.
Racism has been re-employed in the second half of the 20th century by some conservative and right wing thinkers.
Also see: eugenics
Source:
David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford, 1987).
- social-Darwinism
Attempted application of theory of the survival of the fittest to public policy.
The provision of social services allowed the 'unfit' to survive, and reproduce children who inherited their social characteristics. Such services, therefore, however well-meaning, damaged society.
Source:
David Miller et al., eds, The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford, 1987).
- spontaneous order
Theory of Austrian social scientist Friedrich A. Hayek (1899-1992).
Social order is not deliberately created but arises out of the natural selection of those institutions and values and practices which are effective, so that a traditional framework develops over time within which individuals may operate securely.
Source:
F A Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty (London, 1982)
